Artificial Intelligence and Robotics Applications

Artificial tidings and Robotics ApplicationsI. IntroductionArtificial intelligence(AI) is theintelligenceof utensils and the outgrowth ofcomputer sciencethat aims to create it. Textbooks define the field as the study and design ofthinking(a) agents,1where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success.2John McCarthy, who coined the marge in 1956,3defines it as the science and design of making intelligent machines. The field was founded on the claim that a central property of servicemans, intelligence-the wisenessofHomo sapiens- can buoy be so precisely expound that it can be simulated by a machine.This raises philosophical issues about the nature of themindand limits of scientifichubris, issues which progress to been addressed bymyth,fictionandphilosophysince antiquity.6Artificial intelligence has been the subject of optimism,7solely has withal suffered come inbacks8and, today, has become an essential part of the technology intentness, providing the heavy lifting for many a(prenominal) of the nigh difficult problems in computer science. AI research is mellowedly technical and heighten, deeply divided into subfields that often fail to communicate with each other.10Subfields run by grown up around particular institutions, the work of individual researchers, the solution of specific problems, dourstanding differences of opinion about how AI should be d unrivalled and the masking of widely differing tools. The central problems of AI include such traits as reasoning, haveledge, planning, learning, communication, perception and the ability to move and manipulate objects.11General intelligence (or difficult AI) is still a long-term goal of (some) research.AI plays a major role in the field of robotics. The wordrobotcan refer to both physical robots and practical(prenominal)softw atomic number 18 agents, but the latter are usually referred to asbots.3There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots, but there is general understanding among experts and the public that robots tend to do some or all of the following move around, operate a mechanical limb, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behaviour, especially behaviour which mimics kind-hearteds or other animals. There is conflict about whether the term can be applied to remotely operated devices, as the most frequent usage implies, or solely to devices which are controlled by their software without human intervention. InSouth Africa,robotis an informal and comm all used term for a set of traffic lights. It is difficult to compare numbers of robots in dissimilar countries, since there are different definitions of what a robot is.TheInternational system for Standardizationgives a definition of robot inISO 8373 an automatically controlled, reprogramm qualified, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either immovable in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.5This definition is used by the International Federation of Robotics, theEuropean Robotics explore Network(EURON), and many national standards committees. The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) uses a broader definition a robot is a re-programmable multi-functional manipulator intentional to move materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the achievement of a variety of tasks.7The RIA subdivides robots into four classes devices that manipulate objects with manual control, automated devices that manipulate objects with predetermined cycles, programmable and servo-controlled robots with continuous point-to-point trajectories, and robots of this last type which also acquire information from the environment and move intelligently in response. There is no one definition of robot which satisfies everyone, and many people have their own.8For example,Joseph Engelberger, a pioneer in ind ustrial robotics, once remarked I cant define a robot, but I know one when I see one.9 consort toEncyclopaedia Britannica, a robot is any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort, though it may non resemble human beings in appearance or perform functions in a humanlike manner.10Merriam-Websterdescribes a robot as a machine that looks like a human being and performs various interlocking acts (as walking or talking) of a human being, or a device that automatically performs complicated often repetitive tasks, or a mechanism command by automatic controls. Modern robots are usually used in tightly controlled environments such as onassembly linesbecause they have difficulty responding to unforeseen interference. Because of this, most existence rarely encounter robots. However,domestic robotsfor cleaning and maintenance are increasingly common in and around homes in veritable countries, peculiarly inJapan. Robots can also be found in themilitary.II. HISTORYMechanica l orformal reasoninghas been developed by philosophers and mathematicians since antiquity. The study of analytical system led directly to the invention of theprogrammable digital electronic computer, based on the work ofmathematicianAlan Turingand others. Turingstheory of computationsuggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as childly as 0 and 1, could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical deduction.23This, along with recent disc everywhereies inneurology,information theoryandcybernetics, inspired a small group of researchers to begin to seriously consider the possibility of building an electronic encephalon.24The field of AI research was founded ata conferenceon the campus ofDartmouth Collegein the summer of 1956.25The attendees, including John McCarthy,Marvin Minsky,Allen NewellandHerbert Simon, became the leaders of AI research for many decades.26They and their students wrote programs that were, to most people, simply astonishing27computers were solving word prob lems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.28By the middle of the 1960s, research in the U.S. was heavily funded by theDepartment of Defense29and laboratories had been established around the world.30AIs founders were profoundly optimistic about the future of the new fieldHerbert Simon predicted that machines leave be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do31andMarvin Minsky agreed, writing that within a generation the problem of creating artificial intelligence will substantially be work.32In the aboriginal 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success ofexpert systems,35a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of one or more human experts. By 1985 the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same sentence, Japansfifth generation computerproject inspired the U.S and British governments to restore funding for academic research in the field.36Stories of artificial helpers and compan ions and attempts to create them have a long history but fully autonomousmachines only if appeared in the 20th century. The firstdigitallyoperated and programmable robot, theUnimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of surface from a die casting machine and stack them. Today, commercial andindustrial robotsare in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous or dull to be effortable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and place exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial near(a)s.4 The wordrobotwas introduced to the public by CzechwriterKarel apek in his playR.U.R. (Rossums Universal Robots), published in1920.16The play begins in afactorythat wins artificial people calledrobots, but they are closer to the modern font ideas ofandroids, creatures w ho can be mistaken for humans. They can plainly think for themselves, though they seem happy to serve. At issue is whether therobotsare beingexploitedand the consequences of their treatment. However, Karel apek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to anetymologyin theOxford English Dictionaryin which he named his brother, the painter and writer Josef apek, as its real(a) originator.16In an article in the Czech journalLidov novinyin 1933, he explained that he had originally wanted to call the creatureslaboi(fromLatinlabor, work). However, he did not like the word, and sought advice from his brother Josef, who suggested roboti.III. FIELDS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCEA. Combinatorial Search umpteen problems in AI can be solved in theory by intelligently searching through many possible solutions96Reasoningcan be reduced to performing a search. For example, logical proof can be viewed as searching for a path that leads frompremises to conclusions, where each step is the application of aninference rule.97Planningalgorithms search through trees of goals and sub goals, attempting to find a path to a tar institute goal, a process calledmeans-ends analysis.98Roboticsalgorithms for moving limbs and grasping objects uselocal searchesin configuration space.67Manylearningalgorithms use search algorithms based onoptimization. Simple exhaustive searches99are rarely sufficient for most real world problems thesearch space(the number of places to search) quickly grows toastronomicalnumbers. The result is a search that istoo slowor never eke outs. The solution, for many problems, is to use heuristics or rules of thumb that run choices that are unlikely to lead to the goal (called pruningthesearch tree).Heuristicssupply the program with a best guess for what path the solution lies on.100A very different kind of search came to prominence in the 1990s, based on the mathematical theory ofoptimization. For many problems, it is possible to begin the sear ch with some form of a guess and because refine the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made. These algorithms can be visualized as blindhill climb up we begin the search at a random point on the landscape, and then, by jumps or steps, we keep moving our guess uphill, until we reach the top. Other optimization algorithms aresimulated annealing,beam searchandrandom optimization.101Evolutionary computationuses a form of optimization search. For example, they may begin with a population of organisms (the guesses) and then allow them to mutate and recombine,selectingonly the fittest to survive each generation (refining the guesses). Forms ofevolutionary computationincludeswarm intelligencealgorithms (such asant colonyorparticle swarm optimization) andevolutionary algorithmsB. Neural NetworkA neural network is an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network ofneuronsin thehuman brain. The study ofartificial neural networks127began in the decade before the fi eld AI research was founded, in the work ofWalter PittsandWarren McCullough. Other fundamental early researchers wereFrank Rosenblatt, who invented theperceptionandPaulwerbos who developed theback propagationalgorithm.134The main categories of networks are acyclic orfeed forward neural networks(where the signal passes in only one direction) andre occurrent neural networks(which allow feedback). Among the most popular feed forward networks areperceptions,multi-layer perceptionsandradial basis networks.135Among recurrent networks, the most famous is theHopfield net, a form of attractor network, which was first described byJohn Hopfieldin 1982.Neural networks can be applied to the problem ofintelligent control(for robotics) orlearning, utilise such techniques asHebbian learningandcompetitive learning.137Jeff Hawkinsargues that research in neural networks has stalled because it has failed to model the essential properties of theneocortex, and has suggested a model (Hierarchical Tempor al Memory) that is based on neurological research.C. ApproachesThere is no established unifying theory orparadigmthat guides AI research. Researchers disagree about many issues.76A few of the most long standing questions that have remained unanswered are these should artificial intelligence simulate natural intelligence, by studying psychologyorneurology? Or is human biology as irrelevant to AI research as bird biology is toaeronautical engineering? raft intelligent behavior be described using simple, elegant principles (such aslogicoroptimization)? Or does it necessarily adopt solving a large number of completely unrelated problems?78Can intelligence be reproduced using high-level symbols, similar to words and ideas? Or does it require sub-symbolic processing?79D. General IntelligenceMain articlesStrong AIandAI-complete just about researchers hope that their work will eventually be incorporated into a machine withgeneral Intelligence (known asstrong AI),combining all the skills a bove and majestic human abilities at most or all of them.12A few believe thatanthropomorphicfeatures likeartificial consciousnessor an artificial brainmay be required for such a project.74Eliezer Yudkowskyhas argued for the importance offriendly artificial intelligence, to mitigate the risks of an uncontrolled intelligence explosion. The Singularity Institute for Artificial Intelligenceis dedicated to creating such an AI. Many of the problems above are consideredAI-complete to solve one problem, you must solve them all. For example, even a straightforward, specific task likemachine translationrequires that the machine follow the authors argument (reason), know what is being talked about (knowledge), and faithfully reproduce the authors intention (social intelligence).Machine translation, therefore, is believed to be AI-complete it may requirestrong AIto be done as well as humans can do it.75E. PlanningIntelligent agents must be able to set goals and achieve them.56They need a way t o visualize the future (they must have a representation of the state of the world and be able to make predictions about how their actions will change it) and be able to make choices that maximize the utility(or value) of the available choices.57In classical planning problems, the agent can assume that it is the only thing acting on the world and it can be certain what the consequences of its actions may be.58However, if this is not true, it must periodically check if the world matches its predictions and it must change its plan as this becomes necessary, requiring the agent to reason under uncertainty.59Multi-agent planninguses thecooperationandcompetitionof many agents to achieve a given goal.Emergent behaviorsuch as this is used bye volutionary algorithmsandswarm intelligence.F. LearningMachine learninghas been central to AI research from the beginning.62Unsupervised learningis the ability to find patterns in a stream of input.Supervised learningincludes bothclassificationand nume rical regression. Classification is used to determine what category something belongs in, after seeing a number of examples of things from several(prenominal) categories. Regression takes a set of numerical input/output examples and attempts to discover a continuous function that would generate the outputs from the inputs. Inreinforcement learning63the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. These can be analyzed in terms ofdecision theory, using concepts likeutility. The mathematical analysis of machine learning algorithms and their performance is a branch oftheoretical computer scienceknown as computational learning theoryG. Motion And ManipulationThe field ofrobotics66is closely related to AI. Intelligence is required for robots to be able to handle such tasks as object manipulation67andnavigation, with sub-problems oflocalization(knowing where you are),mapping(learning what is around you) andmotion planning(figuring out how to get there).H. Knowledge Repr esentationKnowledge representationandknowledge engineeringare central to AI research. Many of the problems machines are expected to solve will require extensive knowledge about the world. Among the things that AI needs to represent are objects, properties, categories and relations between objects45situations, events, states and date46causes and effects47knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know)and many other, less well researched domains. A complete representation of what exists is anontology(borrowing a word from traditionalphilosophy), of which the most general are calledupper ontologies.I. Natural Language ProcessingNatural language processing64gives machines the ability to read and understand the languages that humans speak. Many researchers hope that a sufficiently right on natural language processing system would be able to acquire knowledge on its own, by reading the existing text available over the internet. Some straightforward applications of natural language processing includeinformation retrieval(ortext mining) andmachine translation.IV. APPLICATIONS OF ROBOTSRobotics has been of interest to mankind for over one hundred years. However our perception of robots has been influenced by the media and Hollywood.One may ask what robotics is about? In my eyes, a robots characteristics change depending on the environment it operates in. Some of these areA. satellite SpaceManipulative arms that are controlled by a human are used to unload the docking bay of space shuttles to launch satellites or to construct a space stationB. The Intelligent HomeAutomated systems can now monitor home security, environmental conditions and energy usage. Door and windows can be opened automatically and appliances such as lighting and air conditioning can be pre programmed to activate. This assists occupants irrespective of their state of mobility.C. ExplorationRobots can scream environments that are harmful to humans. An example is monitoring t he environment inside a volcano or exploring our deepest oceans. NASA has used robotic probes for planetary exploration since the early sixties.D. Military Robots mobile robot drones are used for surveillance in todays modern army. In the future automated aircraft and vehicles could be used to carry fuel and ammunition or clear minefieldsE. FarmsAutomated harvesters can cut and gather crops. Robotic dairies are available allowing operators to feed and milk their cows remotely.F. The Car IndustryRobotic arms that are able to perform multiple tasks are used in the car manufacturing process. They perform tasks such as welding, cutting, lifting, sorting and bending. Similar applications but on a smaller scale are now being planned for the food processing industry in particular the trimming, cutting and processing of various meats such as fish, lamb, beef.G. HospitalsUnder development is a robotic accommodate that will enable nurses to lift patients without damaging their backs. Scienti sts in Japan have developed a power-assisted gibe which will give nurses the extra muscle they need to lift their patients- and avoid back injuries. The reconcile was designed by Keijiro Yamamoto, a professor in the welfare-systems engineering department at Kanagawa Institute of Technology outside Tokyo. It will allow caregivers to easily lift bed-ridden patients on and off beds. In its current state the suit has an aluminium exoskeleton and a tangle of wires and compressed-air lines trailing from it. Its advantage lies in the huge impact it could have for nurses. In Japan, the population aged 14 and under has declined 7% over the past five years to 18.3 million this year. Providing care for a growing elderly generation poses a major challenge to the government.Robotics may be the solution. Research institutions and companies in Japan have been trying to create robotic nurses to substitute for humans. Yamamoto has taken another approach and has decided to create a device designed to help human nurses.In tests, a nurse weighing 64 kilograms was able to lift and carry a patient weighing 70 kilograms. The suit is attached to the wearers back with straps and belts. Sensors are placed on the wearers muscles to measure strength. These send the data back to a microcomputer, which calculates how much more power is needed to complete the lift effortlessly.The computer, in turn, powers a chain of actuators or inflatable cuffs that are attached to the suit and worn under the elbows, lower back and knees. As the wearer lifts a patient, compressed air is pushed into the cuffs, applying extra force to the arms, back and legs. The degree of air pressure is automatically adjusted according to how much the muscles are flexed. A clear advantage of this system is that it assists the wearers knees, being only one of its kind to do so.A number of hurdles are still faced by Yamamoto. The suit is unwieldy, the wearer cant climb stairs and turning is awkward. The design weight o f the suit should be less than 10 kilograms for comfortable use. The latest prototype weighs 15 kilograms. making it lighter is technically possible by using smaller and lighter actuators. The prototype has cost less than 1 million ($8,400) to develop. But earlier versions developed by Yamamoto over the past 10 years cost upwards of 20 million in government development grants.H. Disaster AreasSurveillance robots fitted with innovational sensing and imaging equipment can operate in hazardous environments such as urban setting damaged by earthquakes by scanning walls, floors and ceilings for morphological integrity.I. EntertainmentInteractive robots that exhibit behaviours and learning ability. SONY has one such robot which moves freely, plays with a ball and can respond to verbal instructions.V. ADVANTAGES OF ROBOTSA. Business BenefitsRobots have the ability to consistently produce high-quality products and to precisely perform tasks. Since they never tire and can work nonstop with out breaks, robots are able to produce more quality goods or execute commands quicker than their human counterpartsB. Management BenefitsRobot employees never call in sick, never waste time and rarely require preparation time before working. With robots, a manager never has to worry about high employee turnover or unfilled positionsC. Employee BenefitsRobots can do the work that no one else wants to do-the mundane, dangerous, and repetitive jobs. Common Misconception about Robots Introducing robots into a work environment does not necessarily mean the elimination of jobs. With the addition of robots comes the need for highly-skilled, human workers.D. Consumer BenefitsRobots produce high quality goods Since robots produce so many quality goods in a shorter amount of time than humans, we reap the benefits of cheaper goods. Since the products are produced more quickly, this significantly reduces the amount of time that we are forced to wait for products to come to the marketplaceVI. S HORTCOMINGSFears and concerns about robots have been repeatedly expressed in a wide range of books and films. A common theme is the development of a master race of conscious and highly intelligent robots, motivated to take over or destroy the human race. (SeeThe Terminator,Runaway,vane Runner,Robocop,the Replicators inStargate,the Cylons inBattlestar Galactica,The Matrix,THX-1138, andI, Robot.) Some fictional robots are programmed to kill and destroy others gain superhuman intelligence and abilities by upgrading their own software and hardware. Examples of popular media where the robot becomes evil are2001 A Space Odyssey,Red Planet, Another common theme is the reaction, sometimes called the uncanny valley, of unease and even revulsion at the surge of robots that mimic humans too closely.99Frankenstein(1818), often called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster go on beyond its creator. In the TV show, Futurama, the robots are p ortrayed as humanoid figures that live alongside humans, not as robotic butlers. They still work in industry, but these robots carry out daily lives.Manuel De Landahas noted that smart missiles and autonomous bombs equipped with artificial perception can be considered robots, and they make some of their decisions autonomously. He believes this represents an important and dangerous trend in which humans are handing over important decisions to machines.100Marauding robots may have entertainment value, but unsafe use of robots constitutes an actual danger. A heavy industrial robot with powerful actuators and unpredictably complex behavior can cause harm, for instance by stepping on a humans foot or falling on a human. Most industrial robots operate inside a security fence which separates them from human workers, but not all. Two robot-caused deaths are those of Robert Williams andKenji Urada. Robert Williams was struck by a robotic arm at a casting plant inFlat Rock, Michiganon January 25, 1979.10137-year-oldKenji Urada, a Japanese factory worker, was killed in 1981 Urada was performing routine maintenance on the robot, but neglected to shut it down properly, and was accidentally pushed into agrinding machine.VII. CONCLUSIONSIf the current developments are to be believed then the next wave of robots will have a supernatural resemblance with humans with the help of AI. The Indian automotive industry has finally awaken to the fact that robotics is not just about saving labour, but it also helps companies significantly to step up productivity and quality to learn the demands of international competition. Industrial robots can be involved in production industry because of its less time consumption, accuracy of work, and less labour. As globalization accelerates, robotics is increasingly vital to maintain the health of the industrial sector and keep manufacturing jobs at home. Now more than ever, the need to stay competitive is a driver for drop in robotics. Compani es in all over the world are often faced with difficult choices Do they send their manufacturing to low-cost producers overseas? Or, do they identify in robotics to continue making products here? We conclude that more companies are realizing that robotics is the better option.